Subsection: Liver Function Tests Case Scenario 1: A 35-year-old woman presents with complaints of yellowish discoloration of eyes and skin, dark urine, loss of appetite, and fatigue for 1 week. On examination, she has icterus and mild hepatomegaly. Laboratory tests Read More …
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Clinical cases of Hemoglobin
Subsection: Heme synthesis Case Scenario 1: A 4-year-old boy is brought to the pediatric clinic with complaints of abdominal pain, dark-colored urine, and photosensitivity. His mother also reports behavioral changes such as irritability and episodes of confusion. Urine examination reveals Read More …
Clinical Cases of Acid-base Balance
Case Scenario 1: A 65-year-old man with a history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) visits the emergency department with shortness of breath and drowsiness. Arterial blood gas analysis reveals the following: pH: 7.30 pCO₂: 60 mmHg HCO₃⁻: 30 mmol/L Read More …
Clinical Cases of Water-Electrolyte Balance
Case Scenario 1: A 48-year-old female patient came to the OPD with complaints of depressed mood, irritability, and dark yellow urine. Her lab reports show: Sodium (Na⁺): 132 mEq/L Potassium (K⁺): 4.0 mEq/L Elevated Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) levels a.What is Read More …
Chemistry and Metabolism of Carbohydrates
Definition and Functions of Carbohydrates Definition: Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds which yield these on hydrolysis. Functions of Carbohydrates: Most abundant dietary source of energy (4 cal/gm). Storage form of energy in the form of Glycogen. Structural Read More …
Biological Oxidation
High Energy Compounds Substances which possess sufficient free energy to liberate at least 7 Cal/mol at pH 7.0 Possess high energy bonds: acid anhydride bonds. Class Examples of high-energy compounds Pyrophosphates ATP, pyrophosphate Acyl Phosphates 1,3 Biphosphoglycerate, Carbamoyl phosphate Enol Read More …
Clinical Cases of Minerals
Case Scenario 1: A 13-year-old girl presents with tingling and numbness in her right fingers, intermittent muscle cramps, and decaying teeth. On examination, she has carpopedal spasms, positive Chvostek’s and Trousseau’s signs, and dental caries. Identify the mineral likely to Read More …
Clinical Cases of Nutrition
Case Scenario 1: A 4-year-old child from a poor socioeconomic background presents with frequent infections, lethargy, edema, protruded abdomen, and moon face. On examination, the child is found to have edema and is diagnosed with protein-energy malnutrition (PEM). a) Identify Read More …
Clinical Cases of Vitamins
Case Scenario 1: A 5-year-old child from a rural area is brought to the ophthalmology clinic with complaints of difficulty seeing at night for the past few months. On examination, the child has dry, rough conjunctiva, Bitot’s spots, and dry, Read More …
Clinical Cases of Proteins
Case Scenario 1: A 6-month-old infant is brought to the pediatric clinic with complaints of delayed milestones, irritability, and a musty odour in the urine. On examination, the baby has fair skin, blond hair, and blue eyes. The paediatrician suspects Read More …